Recalls, Market Withdrawals, & Safety Alerts American Regent Initiates Nationwide Voluntary Recall of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, USP 7.5% and 8.4%, 50mL Single Dose Vials Due to Particulate Matter

Recalls, Market Withdrawals, & Safety Alerts American Regent Initiates Nationwide Voluntary Recall of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, USP 7.5% and 8.4%, 50mL Single Dose Vials Due to Particulate Matter

GPAT-2011-Test Series

GPAT-2011-Test Series

GPAT-2011 SYLLABUS

PHARMACEUTICS

Introduction to Physical pharmacy; Matter, Properties of Matter:

State of matter, change in the state of matter, latent heats and vapor pressure, sublimation-critical point, Eutectic mixtures, gases, aerosols-inhalers, relative humidity, liquid. complexes, liquid crystals, glassy state, solids- crystalline, amorphous and polymorphism.

Micromeretics and Powder Rheology:

Particle size and distribution, average particle size, number and weight distribution, particle number, methods for determining particle volume, methods of determining particle size- optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation; measurements of particle shape, specific surface area; methods for determining surface area; permeability, adsorption, derived properties of powders, porosity, packing arrangement, densities, bulkiness & flow properties.

Surface and Interfacial Phenomenon:

Liquid interface, surface and interfacial tensions, surface free energy, measurement of surface and interfacial tensions, spreading coefficient, adsorption at liquid interfaces, surface active agents, HLB classification, solubilization, detergency, adsorption at solid interfaces, solid-gas and solid-liquid interfaces, complex films, electrical properties of interface.

Viscosity and Rheology:

Newtonian systems, Law of flow, kinematic viscosity, effect of temperature; non-Newtonian systems: pseudoplastic, dilatant, plastic; thixotropy, thixotropy in formulation, negative thixotropy, determination of viscosity, capillary, falling ball, rotational viscometers.

Dispersion Systems:

Colloidal dispersions: Definition, types, properties of colloids, protective colloids, applications of colloids in pharmacy; Suspensions and Emulsions: Interfacial properties of suspended particles, settling in suspensions, theory of sedimentation, effect of

Propoxyphene Withdrawn From US Market

Courtesy:US FDA                             

Source: Medscape Medical News

November 19, 2010 — The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has asked that propoxyphene, sold under the brand names Darvonand Darvocet by Xanodyne Pharmaceuticals, be removed from the US market. The decision will also affect generic manufacturers and the makers of propoxyphene-containing products.

New clinical data showing that the drug puts patients at risk for potentially serious or even fatal heart rhythm abnormalities has prompted regulators to act. An estimated 10 million patients have used these products.

At a press conference today, John Jenkins, MD, director of the Office of New Drugs, said the new numbers tipped the risk–benefit ratio against the drug.

The withdrawal will include brand name, generic, and all propoxyphene-containing products.

"For the first time, we now have data showing that the standard therapeutic dose of propoxyphene can be harmful to the heart," said Gerald Dal Pan, MD, director of the Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology.

The FDA is advising healthcare professionals stop prescribing propoxyphene. Patients who are currently taking the drug should not abruptly halt their medication but should contact their physician as soon as possible to discuss switching to another pain-management therapy.

"Long-time users of the drug need to know that these changes to the heart's electrical activity are not cumulative," Dr. Dal Pan added. "Once patients stop taking propoxyphene, the risk will go away."

Propoxyphene is an opioid typically used to treat mild to moderate pain. It was first approved by the FDA in 1957. It is sold by prescription under various names alone or in combination with acetaminophen. Since 1978, the FDA has received 2 requests to remove propoxyphene from the market.

In January 2009, an FDA advisory committee voted 14 to 12 against the continued marketing of propoxyphene products. At that time, the committee called for additional information about the drug's cardiac effects.

Withdrawal Already Underway in Europe

A phased withdrawal of propoxyphene is already underway in Europe. The European Medicines Agency made that decision in June 2009. The FDA had considered a withdrawal last year but decided instead to allow continued marketing with a new boxed warning alerting patients and healthcare professionals of the risk for fatal overdose. The agency also required Xanodyne to conduct a new safety study assessing questions about the effects of propoxyphene on the heart.

The results of this study, combined with new epidemiologic data and medical examiner reports, prompted this latest regulatory action.

Should the FDA have acted sooner? Dr. Dal Pan told Medscape Medical News that regulators did not feel there was sufficient evidence before now. "The new information on the effects of the electrical activity on the heart was the final piece to the puzzle," he said.

"These new heart data significantly alter propoxyphene's risk–benefit profile," Dr. Jenkins added. "The drug's effectiveness in reducing pain is no longer enough to outweigh the drug's serious potential heart risks."

GPAT-2010 Questions With Answer Key

Q.l The vitamin essential in tissue culture medium is
(A) Pyridoxine (B) Thiamine (C) Nicotinic acid (D) Inositol
Ans. B

Q.2 Gingkgo biloba is used for its
(A) Expectorant activity (B) Lipid lowering activity
(C) PAF antagonistic activity (D)Antidepressant activity
Ans. C

Q.3 The amount of barbaloin present in Aloe vera is
(A) <1% (B) 3.5-4% (c) 1-1.5% (D) 2-2.5%
Ans. B

Q.4 Sildenafil is used for treatment of one of the following disorders :
(A) Systolic hypertension (B) Unstable angina
(C) Pulmonary hypertension (D) Hypertension due to eclampsia
Ans. C

Q.5 Cardiac glycosides have the following configuration in the aglycone part of the steroid nucleus :
(A) 5a, 1 4 a - 5a, 14β- (C) 5β, 1 4 a - (D) 5β,14β-
Ans. D

Q.6 Quassia wood is adulterated with
(A) Brucea antidysentrica (B) Cassia angustifoila
C) Cinnamomum zeylanicum (D) Cephaelis ipecacuanaha
Ans. B

Q.7 Eugenol is present in
(A) Fennel (B) Tulsi (C) Cardamom (D) Coriander
Ans. B

Q.8 Which one of the following drugs is prescribed for the treatment of Philadelphia chromosome positive
patients with Chronic myeloid Leukemia?
(A) Pentostatin (B) Methotrexate
(C) Imatinib (D) L-Asparaginase
Ans. C

Q.9 Which of the following monoclonal antibodies is prescribed for patients with non-Hodgkin's
Lymphoma?
(A) Infliximab (B) Abciximab (C) Gemtuzumab (D) Rituximab
Ans.

Q.10 Identify the drug which is NOT used in the treatment of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum :
(A.) Artemisinin (B) Primaquine (C) Quinine (D) Mefloquine
Ans. B

Q.ll Which one of the following drugs does NOT act through G-Protein coupled receptors?
(A) Epinephrine (B) Insulin (C) Dopamine (D) TSH
Ans. B

Q.12 Which one of the following drugs is most effective in preventing transmission of HIV virus from the mother
to the foetus?
(A) Lamivudine (B) Zidovudine (C) Indinavir (D) Ribavirin
Ans. B

Q.13 Improvement of memory in Alzheimer's disease is brought about by drugs which increase transmission in
(A) cholinergic receptors (B) dopaminergic receptors
(C) GABAergic receptors (D) adrenergic receptors
Ans. A

Q.14 Which of the following non-opioid analgesics is a prodrug?
(A) Piroxicam (B) Celecoxib (C)Nabumetone (D) Ketorolac
Ans. C

Q.15 Which one of the following drugs is NOT a typical anti-psychotic agent?
(A) Chlorpromazine (B) Haloperidol
(C) Risperidone (D) Flupentixol
Ans. C

Q.16 Which one of the followings is a plasminogen activator?
(A) Tranexamic acid (B) Streptokinase
(C) Aminocaproic acid (D) None of the above
Ans. B

Q.17 Myasthenia gravis is diagnosed with improved neuromuscular function by using
(A) Donepezil (B) Edrophonium (C) Atropine (D) Pancuronium
Ans. B

Q.18 Which one of the following drugs specifically inhibits calcineurin in the activated T lymphocytes?
(A) Daclizumab (B) Prednisone (C) Sirolimus (D) Tacrolimus
Ans. D

Q.19 The chemical behaviour of morphine alkaloid is
(A) acidic (B)Basic (C) neutral (D) amphoteric
Ans. B

Q.20 At physiological pH the following compound would be MOSTLY in the
(A) cationic form (B) unionized form
(C)zwitterionic form (D) anionic form
Ans.

Q.21 Which one of the followings is used as a mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder and also in certain epileptic
convulsions?
(A) Phenytoin (B) Lithium
(C) Sodium valproate (D) Fluoxetine
Ans. B

Q.22 An isosteric replacement for carboxylic acid group is
(A) pyrrole (B) isoxazole (C) phenol (D) tetrazole
Ans.-D

Q.23 The given antibiotic is an example of ansamycins :
(A) Roxythromycin (B) Adriamycin (C) Aureomycin (D) Rifamycin
Ans. D

Q.24 For glyburide, all of the following metabolic reactions are logical EXCEPT
(A) O-demethylation (B) aromatic oxidation
(C) benzylic hydroxylation (D) amide hydrolysis
Ans. B

Q.25 The effects observed following systemic administration of levodopa in the treatment of Parkinsonism have
been attributed to its catabolism to dopamine. Carbidopa, can markedly increase the proportion of levodopa that
crosses the blood-brain barrier by
(A) increasing penetration of levodopa through BBB by complexation with it
(B) decreasing peripheral metabolism of levodopa
(C) decreasing metabolism of levodopa in the CNS
(D) decreasing clearance of levodopa from the CNS
Ans. B

Q.26 Ethambutol molecule has
(A) two chiral centers and 3 stereoisomers
( B) two chiral centers and 4 stereoisomers
(C) two chiral centers and 2 stereoisomers
(D) one chiral center and 2 stereoisomers
Ans. B

Q.27 A compound will be sensitive towards IR radiation only when one of the following properties undergo
transition on
(A) Polarizability (B) Dielectric constant
(C) Dipole moment (D) Refractivity
Ans. C

Q.28 X-ray crystallographic analysis of an optically active compound determines its
(A) Optical rotatory dispersive power (B) Absolute configuration
(C) Relative configuration (D) Optical purity
Ans.

Q.29 Which one of the following statements is WRONG?
(A) A singlet or triplet state may result when one of the electrons from the HOMO is
excited to higher energy levels
(B) In an excited singlet state, the spin of the electron in the higher energy orbital is
paired with the electron in the ground state orbital
(C) Triplet excited state is more stable than the singlet excited state
(D) When the electron from the singlet excited state returns to ground state, the molecule always shows
fluorescence phenomenon
Ans. C

Q.30 Aminotransferases usually require the following for their activity :
(A) Niacinamide (B)Vitamin B12
(C) Pyridoxal phosphate (D) Thiamine
Ans. C

Pharmacist: Key Role player in Clinical Research

Author: Dr Sumit Shrivastav, CRAA
Pharmacists are professionals who best understand the nature of a drug inside human body. Typically, pharmacists routinely review medication orders, prescriptions, and medication profiles to ensure appropriate drug selection, doses, and dosing schedule. They look for drug-food interactions that may be harmful. If they identify a drug related problem or detect a potentially dangerous situation, they are responsible for notifying the doctor, patient, or both, and recommend potential alternatives.
This specific skill of pharmacists makes them desirable in clinical research industry. Their knowledge is very helpful in documenting any adverse event related or not related to the drug during the conduct of a trial.

Let’s take a deeper look at how pharmacists fit into clinical research:

Pharmacy Graduates have an added advantage:
As mentioned, a pharmacy graduate has a better understanding of the medical and scientific terminologies used in the pharmaceutical research industry and hence has an edge over other graduates entering the field.
Additionally a pharmacy candidate can understand the importance of any drug-drug interaction, variation in dosing schedule and problem told by a patient. He/she thus proves to be a helping hand in drug development and research process, working along with clinical investigator in proper execution of the trial or working with a sponsor in development of clinical protocol.

Getting a Good start:
Most of the pharmacists start their career dispensing pills at a local pharmacy. Some pharmacists also become directors and part of a new product development at various pharmaceutical companies distributing experimental drugs for clinical trials. In essence, pharmacists help coordinate the research and development process that brings new medication from the laboratory to the familiar pharmacist shelf.

Career Opportunities for Pharmacists in Clinical Research:

Clinical Research Coordinator/ Clinical Research Associate
An entry level to most of the pharmacy graduates to enter into the clinical research industry is as Clinical Research Coordinator or Clinical Research Associate.
A clinical research coordinator (CRC) is the person who works under immediate direction of an investigator who is conducting a trial at a trial site; mainly hospital, private clinics or any institute. CRCs are considered as the vital part of the clinical research process because they are involved in the data generation process which on a later stage is evaluated for safety and efficacy of the product being investigated. As they have basic understanding of the terms and codes used by a physician, pharmacists as CRCs can generate data and it is later transcribed in the case report form.
A Clinical Research Associate (CRA) is the person who monitors the activities conducted by CRC and investigator and checks its compliance with the written set of guidelines which are Protocol, SOP, GCPs and other regulatory requirements. While a CRC helps in data generation, a CRA is the person who checks this data for its credibility to be evaluated on regular basis. A CRA needs managerial capabilities, should be well-versed with the research needs, understand the trial related activities, and plays a dynamic role in developing interpersonal relationships between a site CRC, investigator and other members of the work area.

Project manager/ Research Officers
With the experience and knowledge in clinical research, pharmacy graduates can attain a managerial level within the organization as Project Managers, to look after all the trial related activities on regular intervals on the basis of the report provided to them by these clinical research associates. In addition, project managers also help in selecting the investigator in conjunction with the CRA, collect and analyze trial data, reports adverse events to regulatory bodies or sponsors, write and publish trial study report. They also ensure that all trial related activities are completed within the designated timeframe hence reaching milestones that have been set.
Some of the pharmacists may become Research officers who help in writing the trial protocol for the pharmaceutical companies.
In addition, a number of pharmacists work as consultants for biotechnology or small pharmaceutical companies that have a promising compound and are trying to design the first clinical protocol testing the compound's safety in human subjects. As these companies need to think through questions like 'What is the appropriate dose? What is the toxicology profile?', pharmacists provide the right answers because of their knowledge and experience.

Auditors
An experienced CRA with a pharmacy background can choose his/her career as an auditor. An auditor is someone who monitors all the activities of the CRA and trial related documents to ensure that compliance of in the trial is maintained. An Auditor also helps by analyzing errors and in rectifying them.

Drug Safety Specialist
Collecting all the data related to the safety of the drug, such as adverse events, serious adverse events, unexpected drug reactions and compiling them to evaluate the safety profile of the investigational product is a job that can only be performed by a medical candidate or a person with knowledge in pharmacology. Drug Safety Specialists typically scrutinize reports obtained from all the sources (Sites) for their validity, whether or not they are related to the investigational product, outcome of that event and many more.

Clinical Data Management (CDM)
Clinical Data management has now come up with new dimension in clinical research for most of the graduates regardless of their majors. One can also explore his career in CDM at various positions like Data Entry Associate, Data base designer, programmer and many more.
Even in Contract Research Organizations (CROs), there are separate pharmacies to store and dispense investigational drugs that are to be used at trial sites. A pharmacist with knowledge of clinical research has to have understanding of the research activities and the need. Storage of investigational product is essential to the protocol and storage instructions. Maintenance of dispensing logs and accountability of test product can only be done by a pharmacist.
Pharmacists with advanced training may also collaborate with other providers to focus on direct patient care activities. These activities may include policy development or clinical research rather than reviewing and approving prescription orders.
It is thus clear that clinical research offers tremendous opportunities and possibilities for pharmacy graduates. The key for anyone looking to enter into clinical research is to find the right strategic partner to undergo the training, seek internships/projects in clinical research to determine the fit better and network within the industry.

Dr. Sumit has extensive experience in training and research and development in clinical research. He currently manages clinical research operations at Clinical Research Academy of America (CRAA) a leading provider of training and internships in clinical research. For more information, please visit www.clinacademy.com

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GPAT-2011

INFORMATION ABOUT GPAT-2011 EXAMINATION

Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (GPAT-2011) is an All India examination conducted by The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara on behalf of All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi. The REGISTRATION only will be ONLINE (not the Examination) for GPAT-2011 Examination.

GPAT 2010 being organised by M.S. University of Baroda

Therefore, in order to facilitate admission of Pharmacy graduates in M.Pharma as also to award fellowships/scholarships to Pharmacy graduates, AICTE has decided to organize to conduct an examination in the name of Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (GPAT) with effect from academic year 2010-11. Accordingly, a National Monitoring Committee (NMC) was constituted for monitoring the issues pertaining to the policy as well as conduct of GPAT.

NMC, constituted by AICTE has recommended for conduct of 1st GPAT i.e. GPAT-2010 by the M.S. university of Baroda, Vadodara-390002, which has agreed to conduct the examination on May 02, 2010 throughout the country.

Candidates willing to appear in GPAT-2010 may obtain application form along with information brochure from either the office of coordinator GPAT-2010, the M.S. university of Baroda, Vadodara-390002 or from the designated branches of Bank of Baroda, whose information may be obtained from the website of GPAT-2010 at URL http://www.gpat.in, http://www.msubaroda.ac.in

ELIGIBILITY FOR GPAT 2010

Persons holding Bachelor’s degree in Pharmacy (4 years after 10+2) or appearing in the Final year examination of B. Pharmacy (4 years after 10+2) in the year 2010 only are eligible for appearing for GPAT-2010 examination.

GPAT IMPORTANT DATES

The important dates for GPAT-2010 are as follows

Issuing of GPAT application forms and information brochures at :

• Designated branches of Bank of Baroda in various cities or
• By post only from The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 25th January, 2010

Last date for issue of Application Form at :

• Bank Counters (during the Bank timings) 22nd February, 2010
• The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara (11:00 am to 05:00 pm) 1st March, 2010
  

Last date for receipt of completed OMR Application Form along with Pay-in sleep
at GPAT Offfice, The M.S.University of Baroda, Vadodara (upto 05:00 pm) 12th March, 2010

Date of GAPT 2010 Examination (2:00 - 5:00 pm) 2nd May 2010

Announcement of the result of GPAT 2010 24th May 2010

GPAT-2010 examination would be conducted along with JAM-2010 examination on 2nd May 2010 at different centers (to be notified) through out India.

HOW TO APPLY

Candidates should follow the following steps for applying for GPAT-2010 examination :
Step1 : Procurement of Application Form
Candidate can obtain a packet containing :

• Application Form
• Information Brochure
• Acknowledgment Card
• Envelope

from : 1 . Designated Branches of Bank of Baroda

2. GPAT Office by sending a request letter along with a Demand Draft for appropriate amount.

Demand Draft for Application :

The candidates who wish to obtain the Application Form and Information Brochure by post or personally from GPAT office counter should obtain a demand draft (in favor of “GPAT”) for Rs 1000/- (Rs. 500/- for SC/ST/PD) payable at Bank of Baroda, Vadodara.

Step 2 : Filling in the Application Form

Candidates must follow the instructions provided in GPAT 2010 Brochure.

Step 3 : Submission of Application forms

Duly filled-in Application Form with appropriate enclosures must be sent by :

1. Registered or Speed post to :

   The Co-ordinator, GPAT 2010
   The M.S.University of Baroda,
   Shri G.H.Patel Pharmacy Building,
   Opp. University Main Office,
   Donors’ Plaza,Fatehganj,
   Vadodara-390 002
   on or before Friday, 12th March 2010, 17.00 hrs.

2. May also be submitted in person at the GPAT Office counter as per the above given timings.

GPAT Exam Structure

The GPAT-2010 examination will consist of a single paper of 3 hours duration containing 100 questions carrying a maximum of 100 marks. The question paper will consist of only multiple choice objective-type questions. Each question will have four choices for the answer. The candidates will have to mark the correct choice on an Optical Response Sheet (ORS) by darkening the appropriate bubble against each question. There will be negative marking for each wrong answer that is 1/3 (one-third) mark will be deducted.

GPAT Examination: Examination will be similar to that of GATE 2009 Examination, where the candidate will mark the correct answer out of four options in an Optical Response Sheet (ORS) by darkening the appropriate bubble.

GPAT SYLLABUS

Syllabus for GPAT 2010 Examination

GPAT Result

a) GPAT 2010 result will be announced on 24th May 2010, 17: 00 hrs at GPAT office. The result will also be available
on the website, as listed in Section 1.6.
b) GPAT 2010 score is valid for ONE YEAR from the date of announcement of the result.
c) The machine-gradable Optical Response Sheets (ORS) are graded and scrutinized with extreme care. There is no provision for regrading or retotalling. No photocopies of the machine-gradable Optical Response Sheets (ORS) will be made available. No correspondence in this regard will be entertained.

 

All the enquiries regarding GPAT-2011 examination can be obtained from the GPAT Office as given below  

The Co-ordinator, GPAT 2011
The M.S.University of Baroda,
Shri. G.H. Patel Pharmacy Building,
Opp: University Main Office,
Donors’ Plaza, Fatehganj,
Vadodara - 390 002
Ph (O) : (0265) 2750821
FAX : (0265) 2750819
Mobile : 09408151958
E-mail : gpat2011@yahoo.com, coordinatorgpat@gmail.com
Website : www.msubaroda.ac.in
Website : www.gpat.in

Clinical Research-A new age career

Guest publisher:                                    

Jain Joseph,
Programme Co-ordinator,

Institute Of Clinical Research Management (ICRM),
Kochi.
Phone :0484-4014555 / 8129044555
Visit Us at  http://www.icrmindia.com

Clinical Research- A new age career
The tremendous increase in medical technology and information in the last decade has resulted in an explosion of potential new drugs, devices and biologics that must be tested before being released for use by the public. The profession is constantly challenged to improve and streamline the clinical research programs in order to shorten the development timelines and control the cost for new product development. With the Govt of India becoming a signatory to the TRIPS Agreement and the new Patent Laws in force in India w.e.f. January 2005, it has became mandatory for all Pharma / biotech companies to undertake clinical trials prior to manufacture or market of a new drug in India.
Unlimited employment opportunities are foreseen for well-trained clinical research professionals specifically into multinational Pharmaceutical companies which is estimated at 50,000 in India and 2,50,000 globally according to leading consulting firm, McKinsey. At present more than 100 contract research organizations have set up operations in India. It presents tremendous high paying employment opportunities in India and abroad.
Clinical research professionals can hold a multitude of positions in Pharmaceutical industry, at the investigational site, or in the clinical research service profession either at a contract research organization (CRO) or a site management organization (SMO). Job titles may include, but are not restricted to, clinical research associate, clinical research scientist, clinical research coordinator, medical writer, clinical trial auditor, clinical trial monitor, product safety specialist, clinical research trainer, etc. Industry (sponsor) and service professions (CRO, SMO) usually provide technical and managerial career paths and ample growth opportunities.
Institute of Clinical Research Management (ICRM) is an internationally recognized Clinical Research Management training organization having operations in Bangkok and India. ICRM was founded with a vision to create a competent resource pool of professionals for the Clinical Research Industry.
ICRM has emerged as the epicenter of Clinical Research education within a very short span of time providing the best of infrastructural facilities to its scholars. ICRM provides training at a fully air conditioned campuses located in Bangalore, Cochin, Calicut, Perinthalmanna and Thalassery. Our campus is well appointed with excellent class rooms, library and infrastructure which have exceptional facilities for organizing Group Discussion rooms, Interview Rooms and Presentation Halls. Campus is well connected with 24/7 internet facility which serves as a great resource for e-learning. We also provide residential accommodation for some of our scholars.
ICRM has created a unique training program to accommodate both industry specific knowledge and skills and practical clinical trial experience through extensive research and collaboration with Sponsors, CROs, and SMOs. Apart from the technical knowledge, organizations are keen on selecting those who are good in communication and stand out
as compared to others. ICRM have developed this program which fills the gap and enforces the youth to equip with much required basic soft skills and embedded an Employability Skills Enhancement Program in the core modules of Clinical Research Management
As part of the program, all scholars will complete an internship practicum in clinical studies and use this experience to write a detailed Internship Practicum Report. The internship may take place either on-campus or at approved sites across the country.
Our scholars participate in our current Clinical Research Management projects to get extensive practical, work related experience. This experience is critical to securing a career position in this industry.
ICRM is conducting symposiums across India to create anawareness about Clinical Research which will discuss the various opportunities and challenges in the field and will aim to develop a resource pool for Clinical Research professionals in India. This is a valuable opportunity for graduates/post graduates and professionals in life science, medicine, pharmacy and nursing to know more about the industry of Clinical Research and related specializations and enhance their employability prospects in these areas. For further details, please visit www.icrmindia.com, e-mail to info@icrmindia.com or call 8129 0 44555

STOP SMOKING TO LIVE BETTER

Courtesy:US FDA

“Light” Tobacco Products Pose Heavy Health Risks

“Light” Tobacco Products Pose Heavy Health Risks

LIST OF PHARM-D COLLEGES IN INDIA

 

Name Of The College

1. Al Shifa College of Pharmacy, Post Poonthavanam,
Kizhattur,
Perintalmanna, Distt.

MALAPPURAM - 679 325

2. National College of Pharmacy,
Manassery P.O.
Mukkam,
Kozhikode-673 602.
KMCT Medical College Hospital,Mampatta, Mannassery (P.O.) Mukkam,Kozhikode- 673602.

3. Amrita School of Pharmacy,
Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences,
Healthcare Campus,
Elammakara PO,
Kochi – 682 026.

4. Sree Krishna College of
Pharmacy & Research
Centre,
Near Parassala Railway Station (Mulluvila),
Parassala P.O.,
Thiruvananthapuram.

Doctor Of Pharmacy (Post Bactularate 3yrs After B.Pharm) :

Name Of The College

1. National College of Pharmacy,
Manassery P.O.
Mukkam,
Kozhikode-673 602.

2. Amrita School of Pharmacy,
Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences,
Healthcare Campus,
Elammakara PO,
Kochi – 682 026.
2010-11

 

Andhra Pradesh:

1. Deccan School of Pharmacy, Hyderabad, 30 seats.
2. Raghavendra Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ananthapur,Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, 30 seats
3. Smt. Sarojini Ramulamma College of Pharmacy, Seshadrinagar, Mahabubnagar, Osmania University, 30 seats.
4. Shri Vishnu College of Pharmacy, Bhimavaram, Andhra University, 30seats.
5. St. Peters Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hanmakonda  Kakatiya University, Vidyaranyapuri, 30 seats
6. Talla Padmavathi College of Pharmacy, Warangal, Kakatiya University, Vidyaranyapuri, 30 seats
7. Bharat Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, 30 seats.
8. Sri Venkateswara Colege of Pharmacy, Hyderabad, Osmania University, 30 seats.
9. GIET School of Pharmacy , EG District, Andhra University, 30 seats.
10. Malla Reddy College of Pharmacy, Osmania University, Secunderabad, 30 seats
11. Vaagdevi College of Pharmacy, Warangal, Kakatiya University, 30 seats
12. P. Rami Reddy Memorial College of Pharmacy, Kadapa, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University.
13. Chalapathi Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Guntur, Acharya Nagarjuna University.
14. Annamacharya College of Pharmacy, Rajampet, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University.
15. KVSR Siddhartha College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vijayawada, Acharya Nagarjuna University.

Tamil Nadu:

1. J.S.S. College of Pharmacy, Ootacamund, J.S.S. University
2. Nandha College of Pharmacy, ERODE, The Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University.
3. Ramakrishna Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Coimbatore. Dr. M.G.R. Medical University
4. Ramachandra College of Pharmacy, Chennai, Sri Ramachandra University
5. VEL's College of Pharmacy, Chennai
6. Annamalai University, Chidambaram
7. SRM College of Pharmacy, Kattankulathur.
8. PSG College of Pharmacy, Coimbatore, The Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University
9. Vinayaka Missions's College of Pharmacy, SALEM
10. KMCH College of Pharmacy, Coimbture, The Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University

Karnataka:

1. Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal
2. Vishweshwarapura Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bangalore
3. M.S. Ramaiah College of Pharmacy, Bangalore
4. J.S.S. College of Pharmacy, Mysore
5. Navodaya Education Trust's N.E.T. College of Pharmacy, Raichur
6. Sri Jagadguru Mallikarjuna Murugharajendra College of Pharmacy, Chittradurga
7. Hyderabad Karnataka Education Society’s, College of Pharmacy, Gulbarga
8. B.V.V. Sangha’s Hanagal Shri Kumareshwar College of Pharmacy, Bagalkot
9. KLE College of Pharmacy, Belgaum
10. Sri Adichunchanagiri College of Pharmacy
11. Bapuji Pharmacy College, Davangiri
12. B.L.D.E.A’s College of Pharmacy, Bijapur
13. The Oxford College of Pharmacy, Bangalore
14. PES College of Pharmacy, Bangalore

 Madhya Pradesh:

1. Shri Ramnath Singh Instt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Gwalior.

Maharastra:

1. Poona College of Pharmacy, Bharti Vidhyapeeth, Pune.

Pharm-D

 

ARTICLE OBTAINED DIRECTLY FROM PCI
[PUBLISHED IN THE GAZETTE OF INDIA, No.19, PART III, SECTION 4]

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

(Pharmacy Council of India)

New Delhi, 10^th May, 2008.

Pharm.D. Regulations 2008

Regulations framed under section 10 of the Pharmacy Act, 1948 (8 of 1948).

(As approved by the Government of India, Ministry of Health vide, letter No.V.13013/1/2007-PMS, dated the 13^th March, 2008 and notified by the Pharmacy Council of India).

No.14-126/2007-PCI.― In exercise of the powers conferred by section 10 of the Pharmacy Act, 1948 (8 of 1948), the Pharmacy Council of India, with the approval of the Central Government, hereby makes the following regulations, namely:-

CHAPTER-I

1. Short title and commencement. – (1) These regulations may be called the Pharm.D. Regulations 2008.

(2) They shall come into force from the date of their publication in the official Gazette.

2. Pharm.D. shall consist of a certificate, having passed the course of study and examination as prescribed in these regulations, for the purpose of registration as a pharmacist to practice the profession under the Pharmacy Act, 1948.

CHAPTER-II

3. Duration of the course. –

a) Pharm.D: The duration of the course shall be six academic years (five years of study and one year of internship or residency) full time with each academic year spread over a period of not less than two hundred working days. The period of six years duration is divided into two phases –

Phase I – consisting of First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth academic year.

Phase II – consisting of internship or residency training during sixth year involving posting in speciality units. It is a phase of training wherein a student is exposed to actual pharmacy practice or clinical pharmacy services and acquires skill under supervision so that he or she may become capable of functioning independently.

b) Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate): The duration of the course shall be for three academic years (two years of study and one year internship or residency) full time with each academic year spread over a period of not less than two hundred working days. The period of three years duration is divided into two phases –

Phase I – consisting of First and Second academic year.

Phase II – consisting of Internship or residency training during third year involving posting in speciality units. It is a phase of training wherein a student is exposed to actual pharmacy practice or clinical pharmacy services, and acquires skill under supervision so that he or she may become capable of functioning independently.

4. Minimum qualification for admission to. –

a) Pharm.D. Part-I Course – A pass in any of the following examinations -

(1) 10+2 examination with Physics and Chemistry as compulsory subjects along with one of the following subjects:

Mathematics or Biology.

(2) A pass in D.Pharm course from an institution approved by the Pharmacy Council of India under section 12 of the Pharmacy Act.

(3) Any other qualification approved by the Pharmacy Council of India as equivalent to any of the above examinations.

Provided that a student should complete the age of 17 years on or before 31^st December of the year of admission to the course.

Provided that there shall be reservation of seats for the students belonging to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes in accordance with the instructions issued by the Central Government/State Government/Union Territory Administration as the case may be from time to time.

b) Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate) Course -

A pass in B.Pharm from an institution approved by the Pharmacy Council of India under section 12 of the Pharmacy Act:

Provided that there shall be reservation of seats for the students belonging to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes in accordance with the instructions issued by the Central Government/State Government/Union Territory Administration as the case may be from time to time.

5. Number of admissions in the above said programmes shall be as prescribed by the Pharmacy Council of India from time to time and presently be restricted as below –

i) Pharm.D. Programme – 30 students.

ii) Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate) Programme – 10 students.

6. Institutions running B.Pharm programme approved under section 12 of the Pharmacy Act, will only be permitted to run Pharm.D. programme. Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate) programme will be permitted only in those institutions which are permitted to run Pharm.D. programme.

7. Course of study. – The course of study for Pharm.D. shall include the subjects as given in the Tables below. The number of hours in a week, devoted to each subject for its teaching in theory, practical and tutorial shall not be less than that noted against it in columns (3), (4) and (5) below.

T A B L E S

First Year :

S.No.	Name of Subject	No. of hours of Theory	No. of hours of Practical	No. of hours of Tutorial
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
1.1	Human Anatomy and Physiology	3	3	1
1.2	Pharmaceutics	2	3	1
1.3	Medicinal Biochemistry	3	3	1
1.4	Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry	3	3	1
1.5	Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry	2	3	1
1.6	Remedial Mathematics/ Biology	3	3*	1
	Total hours	16	18	6 = (40)

* For Biology

Second Year:

S.No	Name of Subject	No. of hours of Theory	No. of hours of Practical	No. of hours of Tutorial
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
2.1	Pathophysiology	3	-	1
2.2	Pharmaceutical Microbiology	3	3	1
2.3	Pharmacognosy & Phytopharmaceuticals	3	3	1
2.4	Pharmacology-I	3	-	1
2.5	Community Pharmacy	2	-	1
2.6	Pharmacotherapeutics-I	3	3	1
	Total Hours	17	9	6 = 32

Third Year:

S.No.	Name of Subject	No. of hours of Theory	No. of hours of Practical	No. of hours of Tutorial
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
3.1	Pharmacology-II	3	3	1
3.2	Pharmaceutical Analysis	3	3	1
3.3	Pharmacotherapeutics-II	3	3	1
3.4	Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence	2	-	-
3.5	Medicinal Chemistry	3	3	1
3.6	Pharmaceutical Formulations	2	3	1
	Total hours	16	15	5 = 36

Fourth Year:

S.No.	Name of Subject	No. of hours of Theory	No. of hours of Practical/ Hospital Posting	No. of hours of Tutorial
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
4.1	Pharmacotherapeutics-III	3	3	1
4.2	Hospital Pharmacy	2	3	1
4.3	Clinical Pharmacy	3	3	1
4.4	Biostatistics & Research Methodology	2	-	1
4.5	Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics	3	3	1
4.6	Clinical Toxicology	2	-	1
	Total hours	15	12	6 = 33

Fifth Year:

S.No.	Name of Subject	No. of hours of Theory	No. of hours of Hospital posting*	No. of hours of Seminar
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
5.1	Clinical Research	3	-	1
5.2	Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics	3	-	1
5.3	Clinical Pharmacokinetics & Pharmacotherapeutic Drug Monitoring	2	-	1
5.4	Clerkship *	-	-	1
5.5	Project work (Six Months)	-	20	-
	Total hours	8	20	4 = 32

* Attending ward rounds on daily basis.

Sixth Year:

Internship or residency training including postings in speciality units. Student should independently provide the clinical pharmacy services to the allotted wards.

(i) Six months in General Medicine department, and

(ii) Two months each in three other speciality departments

8. Syllabus. – The syllabus for each subject of study in the said Tables shall be as specified in Appendix -A to these regulations.

9. Approval of the authority conducting the course of study. – (1) No person, institution, society or university shall start and conduct Pharm.D or Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate) programme without the prior approval of the Pharmacy Council of India.

(2) Any person or pharmacy college for the purpose of obtaining permission under sub-section (1) of section 12 of the Pharmacy Act, shall submit a scheme as prescribed by the Pharmacy Council of India.

(3) The scheme referred to in sub-regulation (2) above, shall be in such form and contain such particulars and be preferred in such manner and be accompanied with such fee as may be prescribed:

Provided that the Pharmacy Council of India shall not approve any institution under these regulations unless it provides adequate arrangements for teaching in regard to building, accommodation, labs., equipments, teaching staff, non-teaching staff, etc., as specified in Appendix-B to these regulations.

10. Examination. – (1) Every year there shall be an examination to examine the students.

(2) Each examination may be held twice every year. The first examination in a year shall be the annual examination and the second examination shall be supplementary examination.

(3) The examinations shall be of written and practical (including oral nature) carrying maximum marks for each part of a subject as indicated in Tables below :

T A B L E S

First Year examination :

S.No.	Name of Subject	Maximum marks for Theory	Maximum marks for Practicals
		Examination	Sessional	Total	Examination	Sessional	Total
1.1	Human Anatomy and Physiology	70	30	100	70	30	100
1.2	Pharmaceutics	70	30	100	70	30	100
1.3	Medicinal Biochemistry	70	30	100	70	30	100
1.4	Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry	70	30	100	70	30	100
1.5	Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry	70	30	100	70	30	100
1.6	Remedial Mathematics/ Biology	70	30	100	70*	30*	100*
				600			600 = 1200

* for Biology.

Second Year examination :

S.No.	Name of Subject	Maximum marks for Theory	Maximum marks for Practicals
		Examination	Sessional	Total	Examination	Sessional	Total
2.1	Pathophysiology	70	30	100	-	-	-
2.2	Pharmaceutical Microbiology	70	30	100	70	30	100
2.3	Pharmacognosy & Phytopharmaceuticals	70	30	100	70	30	100
2.4	Pharmacology-I	70	30	100	-	-	-
2.5	Community Pharmacy	70	30	100	-	-	-
2.6	Pharmacotherapeutics-I	70	30	100	70	30	100
				600			300 = 900

Third Year examination :

S.No.	Name of Subject	Maximum marks for Theory	Maximum marks for Practicals
		Examination	Sessional	Total	Examination	Sessional	Total
3.1	Pharmacology-II	70	30	100	70	30	100
3.2	Pharmaceutical Analysis	70	30	100	70	30	100
3.3	Pharmacotherapeutics-II	70	30	100	70	30	100
3.4	Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence	70	30	100	-	-	-
3.5	Medicinal Chemistry	70	30	100	70	30	100
3.6	Pharmaceutical Formulations	70	30	100	70	30	100
				600			500 = 1100

Fourth Year examination :

S.No.	Name of Subject	Maximum marks for Theory	Maximum marks for Practicals
		Examination	Sessional	Total	Examination	Sessional	Total
4.1	Pharmacotherapeutics-III	70	30	100	70	30	100
4.2	Hospital Pharmacy	70	30	100	70	30	100
4.3	Clinical Pharmacy	70	30	100	70	30	100
4.4	Biostatistics & Research Methodology	70	30	100	-	-	-
4.5	Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics	70	30	100	70	30	100
4.6	Clinical Toxicology	70	30	100	-	-	-
				600			400 = 1000

caution smokers

source:mednetlk

UNDERSTAND ABOUT CANCER-A CANCER ANIMATION

metastasis

3D Medical Animation - What is Cancer?

CANCER

 

CANCER-A BASIC UNDERSTANDING

Origins of cancer

All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancer cells.

The body is made up of many types of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce more cells as they are needed to keep the body healthy. When cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells.

However, sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of a cell can become damaged or changed, producing mutations that affect normal cell growth and division. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells form when the body does not need them. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.

 

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. There are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is initially affected.

Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream). Tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems, and they can release hormones that alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:

1. a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymph systems, destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion
2. that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called angiogenesis.

When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a serious condition that is very difficult to treat.

In 2007, cancer claimed the lives of about 7.6 million people in the world. Physicians and researchers who specialize in the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer are called oncologists.

Causes of cancer

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form. Unlike regular cells, cancer cells do not experience programmatic death and instead continue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grows out of control.

•  Genes - the DNA type

Cells can experience uncontrolled growth if there are damages or mutations to DNA, and therefore, damage to the genes involved in cell division. Four key types of gene are responsible for the cell division process: oncogenes tell cells when to divide, tumor suppressor genes tell cells when not to divide, suicide genes control apoptosis and tell the cell to kill itself if something goes wrong, and DNA-repair genes instruct a cell to repair damaged DNA.

Cancer occurs when a cell's gene mutations make the cell unable to correct DNA damage and unable to commit suicide. Similarly, cancer is a result of mutations that inhibit oncogene and tumor suppressor gene function, leading to uncontrollable cell growth.

• Carcinogens

Carcinogens are a class of substances that are directly responsible for damaging DNA, promoting

PHYTO-OESTROGENS A CONSENSUS REVIEW

Thanks to:Radeep.K.R

INTRODUCTION

Epidemiological studies have revealed possible etiological factors responsible for various diseases. From these population-based studies around the world, it is now apparent that many common diseases of the prosperous nations are linked to diet and can be largely prevented by diet modification. This has renewed interest in the research of non-nutrient and nutrient bioactive compounds obtained from plant sources, which possess a wide range of biological properties that contribute to different health-related benefits. These phytochemicals are becoming increasingly recognized for maintaining good health both to clinical nutritionists and lay men. The phytoestrogens are naturally occurring plant derived non-steroidal compounds and are found in many foods2. Population-based studies have revealed that consumption of a phytoestrogen-rich diet, as seen with traditional Asiatic societies, is protective against so-called "Western" diseases such as breast, prostate, and bowel cancer and cardiovascular diseases. These compounds appear to be biomarkers of a 'healthy' diet. Apart from plant source, compounds with estrogen like activity are also found in animals (ovarian steroids),microorganisms (e.g., mycoestrogens from molds)1, as well as industrially manufactured estrogenic compounds such as bisphenol A and nonylpheno!4. Drugs like diethyl stilboesterol, estradiol benzoate etc. also have estrogenic activity. Wide range of compounds with estrogenic activity may be consumed due to their introduction into the food chain. One example is pesticides and insecticides,including DOT, which contain estrogen-like compounds. These compounds and several other environmental estrogens have been-classified as xenoestrogensS. The long-term effects of xenoestrogens are not known completely, however, there is a growing concern over their potentially deleterious effects on human health's. This review is focused on classification, mechanism of action, pharmacology,and various promising uses of phytoestrogens

SOURCE OF PHYTOESTROGENS

            blackberry fruit-one of the source of phytoestrogens.

According to a study by Canadian researchers about the content of nine common phytoestrogens in a Western diet, foods with the highest relative phytoestrogen content were nuts and oilseeds, followed by soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, and other processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, fruits, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. Flax seed and other oilseeds contained the highest total phytoestrogen content, followed by soybeans and tofu.^1J"-ⁱ The highest concentrations of isoflavones are found in soybeans and soybean products followed by legumes, whereas lignans are the primary source of phytoestrogens found in nuts and oilseeds (e.g. flax) and also found in cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables.

Phytoestrogen content varies in different foods, and may vary significantly within the same group of foods (e.g. soy beverages, tofu) depending on processing mechanisms and type of soybean used.^ill! Legumes (in particular soybeans), whole grain cereals, and some seeds are high in phytoestrogens. A more comprehensive list of foods known to contain phytoestrogens includes: soybeans, tofu, tempeh, soy beverages, linseed (flax), sesame seeds, wheat berries, fenugreek, oais, barley, dried beans, lentils, yams, rice, alfalfa, mung beans, apples, carrots, pomegranates, ^ wheat germ, rice bran, soy linseed bread, ginseng, hops , bourbon, beer¹ ' , fennel and anise.

An epidemiological study of women in the United States found that the dietary intake of phytoestrogens in healthy post-menopausal Caucasian women is less than one milligram daily

Table 1. Foods high in phytoestrogen content.

Phytoestrogen food sources	Phytoestrogen content (µg/100g)
Flax seed	379380
Soy beans	103920
Tofu	27150.1
Soy yogurt	10275
Sesame seed	8008.1
Flax bread	7540
Multigrain bread	4798.7
Soy milk	2957.2
Hummus	993
Garlic	603.6
Mung bean sprouts	495.1
Dried apricots	444.5
Alfalfa sprouts	441.4
Dried dates	329.5
Sunflower seed	216
Chestnuts	210.2
Olive oil	180.7
Almonds	131.1
Green bean	105.8
Peanuts	34.5
Onion	32
Blueberry	17.5
Corn	9
Coffee, regular	6.3
Watermelon	2.9
Milk, cow	1.2

Table 2. Total phytoestrogen and lignan content in vegetables,

3D SKIN CANCER LIBRARY AN INTRACTIVE EXPERIENCE

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CLICK THE LINK TO EXPERIENCE AN INTERACTIVE 3D VIDEO AND BETTER UNDERSTAND ABOUT CANCER

PENICILLIN ALLERGEY

 

PENICILLIN ALLERGEY

Penicillin is an antibiotic which is taken in cases of skin rashes and other bacterial infections. It is not used in raw form; instead there are medicines in which penicillin is used as a sole ingredient. But there are seen cases where use of penicillin causes allergenic side effects. Penicillin allergy is caused when allergic reactions are seen due to the overreaction of the body’s immune system towards penicillin antibiotics.

Symptoms

The allergic symptoms of penicillin intolerance are common to most allergies. They are listed below.

• Penicillin is used as an antibiotic for curing skin rashes, but sometimes penicillin allergy can itself cause rashes on the superficial skin.
• There are hives seen as side effect allergy of penicillin consumption.
• Along with skin deformities, the eyes and nose also suffer from signs of penicillin allergy. Eyes experience itchiness and burning. They go red. Nasal irritation and runny nose are also symptoms of penicillin allergy.
• If there is oral intake of medicines inclusive of penicillin, then symptoms of its allergy could show swelling in lips and tongue.
• There are red and itchy bumps developed on the facial front as a result of penicillin intolerance.
• The occurrences are rare, but there are cases of penicillin allergy when severities like anaphylaxis are seen. This means that the person has difficulty breathing.
• Symptoms of anaphylaxis include wheezing, dizziness, unconsciousness, weakening of pulse, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and so on.

What makes you more likely to have a severe allergic reaction to penicillin?

Severe allergic reactions to penicillin can be dangerous and life-threatening. You may be more likely to have this type of reaction if you have had:

• A positive skin test for penicillin allergy.
• Hives that appeared quickly after you took the penicillin.
• A previous anaphylactic reaction to penicillin.

If any of these apply to you, you should receive another antibiotic or undergo desensitization

Penicillin.

Penicillin.

ANTIBIOTIC CLASSIFICATION AND SIDE EFFECTS

 

Antibiotics classification

Although there are several classification schemes for antibiotics, based on bacterial spectrum (broad versus narrow) or type of activity (bactericidal vs. bacteriostatic), the most useful is based on chemical structure. Antibiotics within a structural class will generally have similar patterns of effectiveness, toxicity, and allergic potential.

The main classes of antibiotics are:

• Beta-Lactams
  • Penicillins
  • Cephalosporins
• Macrolides
• Fluoroquinolones
• Tetracyclines
• Aminoglycosides

Most commonly used types of antibiotics are: Aminoglycosides, Penicillins, Fluoroquinolones, Cephalosporins, Macrolides, and Tetracyclines. While each class is composed of multiple drugs, each drug is unique in some way.

Penicillins

The penicillins are the oldest class of antibiotics. Penicillins have a common chemical structure which they share with the cephalopsorins. Penicillins are generally bactericidal, inhibiting formation of the cell wall. Penicillins are used to treat skin infections, dental infections, ear infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gonorrhea.

There are four types of penicillins:

• The natural penicillins are based on the original penicillin-G structure. Penicillin-G types are effective against gram-positive strains of streptococci, staphylococci, and some gram-negative bacteria such as meningococcus.
• Penicillinase-resistant penicillins, notably methicillin and oxacillin, are active even in the presence of the bacterial enzyme that inactivates most natural penicillins.
• Aminopenicillins such as ampicillin and amoxicillin have an extended spectrum of action compared with the natural penicillins. Extended spectrum penicillins are effective against a wider range of bacteria.

Penicillins side effects

Penicillins are among the least toxic drugs known. The most common side effect of penicillin is diarrhea.

ANTIBIOTICS

 

What Are Antibiotics?

The word antibiotic comes from the Greek anti meaning 'against' and bios meaning 'life' (a bacterium is a life form).' Antibiotics are also known as antibacterials, and they are drugs used to treat infections caused by bacteria. Bacteria are tiny organisms that can sometimes cause illness to humans and animals. The singular word for bacteria is bacterium.
Such illnesses as tuberculosis, salmonella, syphilis and some forms of meningitis are caused by bacteria. Some bacteria are not harmful, while others are good for us.
Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms our immune system can usually destroy them. We have special white blood cells that attack harmful bacteria. Even if symptoms do occur, our immune system can usually cope and fight off the infection. There are occasions, however, when it is all too much and our bodies need some help - from antibiotics.

The first antibiotic was penicillin. Such penicillin-related antibiotics as ampicillin, amoxicillin and benzylpenicilllin are widely used today to treat a variety of infections - these antibiotics have been around for a long time. There are several different types of modern antibiotics and they are only available with a doctor's prescription in industrialized countries.

How do antibiotics work?

Although there are a number of different types of antibiotic they all work in one of two ways:

• A bactericidal antibiotic kills the bacteria. Penicillin is a bactericidal. A bactericidal usually either interferes with the formation of the bacterium's cell wall or its cell contents.
• A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying.

 

What are antibiotics for?

An antibiotic is given for the treatment of an infection caused by bacteria. They target only bacteria - they do not attack other organisms, such as fungi or viruses. If you have an infection it is important to know whether it is caused by bacteria, and not a virus or fungus. Most upper respiratory tract infections, such as the common cold and sore throats are generally caused by viruses - antibiotics do not work against viruses.