PHYTO-OESTROGENS A CONSENSUS REVIEW

Thanks to:Radeep.K.R

INTRODUCTION

Epidemiological studies have revealed possible etiological factors responsible for various diseases. From these population-based studies around the world, it is now apparent that many common diseases of the prosperous nations are linked to diet and can be largely prevented by diet modification. This has renewed interest in the research of non-nutrient and nutrient bioactive compounds obtained from plant sources, which possess a wide range of biological properties that contribute to different health-related benefits. These phytochemicals are becoming increasingly recognized for maintaining good health both to clinical nutritionists and lay men. The phytoestrogens are naturally occurring plant derived non-steroidal compounds and are found in many foods2. Population-based studies have revealed that consumption of a phytoestrogen-rich diet, as seen with traditional Asiatic societies, is protective against so-called "Western" diseases such as breast, prostate, and bowel cancer and cardiovascular diseases. These compounds appear to be biomarkers of a 'healthy' diet. Apart from plant source, compounds with estrogen like activity are also found in animals (ovarian steroids),microorganisms (e.g., mycoestrogens from molds)1, as well as industrially manufactured estrogenic compounds such as bisphenol A and nonylpheno!4. Drugs like diethyl stilboesterol, estradiol benzoate etc. also have estrogenic activity. Wide range of compounds with estrogenic activity may be consumed due to their introduction into the food chain. One example is pesticides and insecticides,including DOT, which contain estrogen-like compounds. These compounds and several other environmental estrogens have been-classified as xenoestrogensS. The long-term effects of xenoestrogens are not known completely, however, there is a growing concern over their potentially deleterious effects on human health's. This review is focused on classification, mechanism of action, pharmacology,and various promising uses of phytoestrogens

SOURCE OF PHYTOESTROGENS

            blackberry fruit-one of the source of phytoestrogens.

According to a study by Canadian researchers about the content of nine common phytoestrogens in a Western diet, foods with the highest relative phytoestrogen content were nuts and oilseeds, followed by soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, and other processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, fruits, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. Flax seed and other oilseeds contained the highest total phytoestrogen content, followed by soybeans and tofu.^1J"-ⁱ The highest concentrations of isoflavones are found in soybeans and soybean products followed by legumes, whereas lignans are the primary source of phytoestrogens found in nuts and oilseeds (e.g. flax) and also found in cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables.

Phytoestrogen content varies in different foods, and may vary significantly within the same group of foods (e.g. soy beverages, tofu) depending on processing mechanisms and type of soybean used.^ill! Legumes (in particular soybeans), whole grain cereals, and some seeds are high in phytoestrogens. A more comprehensive list of foods known to contain phytoestrogens includes: soybeans, tofu, tempeh, soy beverages, linseed (flax), sesame seeds, wheat berries, fenugreek, oais, barley, dried beans, lentils, yams, rice, alfalfa, mung beans, apples, carrots, pomegranates, ^ wheat germ, rice bran, soy linseed bread, ginseng, hops , bourbon, beer¹ ' , fennel and anise.

An epidemiological study of women in the United States found that the dietary intake of phytoestrogens in healthy post-menopausal Caucasian women is less than one milligram daily

Table 1. Foods high in phytoestrogen content.

Phytoestrogen food sources	Phytoestrogen content (µg/100g)
Flax seed	379380
Soy beans	103920
Tofu	27150.1
Soy yogurt	10275
Sesame seed	8008.1
Flax bread	7540
Multigrain bread	4798.7
Soy milk	2957.2
Hummus	993
Garlic	603.6
Mung bean sprouts	495.1
Dried apricots	444.5
Alfalfa sprouts	441.4
Dried dates	329.5
Sunflower seed	216
Chestnuts	210.2
Olive oil	180.7
Almonds	131.1
Green bean	105.8
Peanuts	34.5
Onion	32
Blueberry	17.5
Corn	9
Coffee, regular	6.3
Watermelon	2.9
Milk, cow	1.2

Table 2. Total phytoestrogen and lignan content in vegetables,

3D SKIN CANCER LIBRARY AN INTRACTIVE EXPERIENCE

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PENICILLIN ALLERGEY

 

PENICILLIN ALLERGEY

Penicillin is an antibiotic which is taken in cases of skin rashes and other bacterial infections. It is not used in raw form; instead there are medicines in which penicillin is used as a sole ingredient. But there are seen cases where use of penicillin causes allergenic side effects. Penicillin allergy is caused when allergic reactions are seen due to the overreaction of the body’s immune system towards penicillin antibiotics.

Symptoms

The allergic symptoms of penicillin intolerance are common to most allergies. They are listed below.

• Penicillin is used as an antibiotic for curing skin rashes, but sometimes penicillin allergy can itself cause rashes on the superficial skin.
• There are hives seen as side effect allergy of penicillin consumption.
• Along with skin deformities, the eyes and nose also suffer from signs of penicillin allergy. Eyes experience itchiness and burning. They go red. Nasal irritation and runny nose are also symptoms of penicillin allergy.
• If there is oral intake of medicines inclusive of penicillin, then symptoms of its allergy could show swelling in lips and tongue.
• There are red and itchy bumps developed on the facial front as a result of penicillin intolerance.
• The occurrences are rare, but there are cases of penicillin allergy when severities like anaphylaxis are seen. This means that the person has difficulty breathing.
• Symptoms of anaphylaxis include wheezing, dizziness, unconsciousness, weakening of pulse, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and so on.

What makes you more likely to have a severe allergic reaction to penicillin?

Severe allergic reactions to penicillin can be dangerous and life-threatening. You may be more likely to have this type of reaction if you have had:

• A positive skin test for penicillin allergy.
• Hives that appeared quickly after you took the penicillin.
• A previous anaphylactic reaction to penicillin.

If any of these apply to you, you should receive another antibiotic or undergo desensitization

Penicillin.

Penicillin.

ANTIBIOTIC CLASSIFICATION AND SIDE EFFECTS

 

Antibiotics classification

Although there are several classification schemes for antibiotics, based on bacterial spectrum (broad versus narrow) or type of activity (bactericidal vs. bacteriostatic), the most useful is based on chemical structure. Antibiotics within a structural class will generally have similar patterns of effectiveness, toxicity, and allergic potential.

The main classes of antibiotics are:

• Beta-Lactams
  • Penicillins
  • Cephalosporins
• Macrolides
• Fluoroquinolones
• Tetracyclines
• Aminoglycosides

Most commonly used types of antibiotics are: Aminoglycosides, Penicillins, Fluoroquinolones, Cephalosporins, Macrolides, and Tetracyclines. While each class is composed of multiple drugs, each drug is unique in some way.

Penicillins

The penicillins are the oldest class of antibiotics. Penicillins have a common chemical structure which they share with the cephalopsorins. Penicillins are generally bactericidal, inhibiting formation of the cell wall. Penicillins are used to treat skin infections, dental infections, ear infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gonorrhea.

There are four types of penicillins:

• The natural penicillins are based on the original penicillin-G structure. Penicillin-G types are effective against gram-positive strains of streptococci, staphylococci, and some gram-negative bacteria such as meningococcus.
• Penicillinase-resistant penicillins, notably methicillin and oxacillin, are active even in the presence of the bacterial enzyme that inactivates most natural penicillins.
• Aminopenicillins such as ampicillin and amoxicillin have an extended spectrum of action compared with the natural penicillins. Extended spectrum penicillins are effective against a wider range of bacteria.

Penicillins side effects

Penicillins are among the least toxic drugs known. The most common side effect of penicillin is diarrhea.

ANTIBIOTICS

 

What Are Antibiotics?

The word antibiotic comes from the Greek anti meaning 'against' and bios meaning 'life' (a bacterium is a life form).' Antibiotics are also known as antibacterials, and they are drugs used to treat infections caused by bacteria. Bacteria are tiny organisms that can sometimes cause illness to humans and animals. The singular word for bacteria is bacterium.
Such illnesses as tuberculosis, salmonella, syphilis and some forms of meningitis are caused by bacteria. Some bacteria are not harmful, while others are good for us.
Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms our immune system can usually destroy them. We have special white blood cells that attack harmful bacteria. Even if symptoms do occur, our immune system can usually cope and fight off the infection. There are occasions, however, when it is all too much and our bodies need some help - from antibiotics.

The first antibiotic was penicillin. Such penicillin-related antibiotics as ampicillin, amoxicillin and benzylpenicilllin are widely used today to treat a variety of infections - these antibiotics have been around for a long time. There are several different types of modern antibiotics and they are only available with a doctor's prescription in industrialized countries.

How do antibiotics work?

Although there are a number of different types of antibiotic they all work in one of two ways:

• A bactericidal antibiotic kills the bacteria. Penicillin is a bactericidal. A bactericidal usually either interferes with the formation of the bacterium's cell wall or its cell contents.
• A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying.

 

What are antibiotics for?

An antibiotic is given for the treatment of an infection caused by bacteria. They target only bacteria - they do not attack other organisms, such as fungi or viruses. If you have an infection it is important to know whether it is caused by bacteria, and not a virus or fungus. Most upper respiratory tract infections, such as the common cold and sore throats are generally caused by viruses - antibiotics do not work against viruses.

penicillin-mechanism of action

CLINICAL TRIALS

Clinical Trials

Courtesy: Wikipedia,

In medical research, clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices. These trials can only take place once satisfactory information has been gathered on the quality of the product and its non-clinical safety, and Health Authority/Ethics Committee approval is granted in the country where the trial is taking place.

Depending on the type of product and the stage of its development, investigators enroll healthy volunteers and/or patients into small pilot studies initially, followed by larger scale studies in patients that often compare the new product with the currently prescribed treatment. As positive safety and efficacy data are gathered, the number of patients is typically increased. Clinical trials can vary in size from a single center in one country to multicenter trials in multiple countries.

Due to the sizable cost a full series of clinical trials may incur, the burden of paying for all the necessary people and services is usually borne by the sponsor who may be the pharmaceutical or biotechnology company that developed the agent under study. Since the diversity of roles may exceed resources of the sponsor, often a clinical trial is managed by an outsourced partner such as a contract research organization (CRO).

Clinical Trials : FAQ

Source: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov

What is a clinical trial?
Although there are many definitions of clinical trials, they are generally considered to be biomedical or health-related research studies in human beings that follow a pre-defined protocol. ClinicalTrials.gov includes both interventional and observational types of studies. Interventional studies are those in which the research subjects are assigned by the investigator to a treatment or other intervention, and their outcomes are measured. Observational studies are those in which individuals are observed and their outcomes are measured by the investigators.

Why participate in a clinical trial?
Participants in clinical trials can play a more active role in their own health care, gain access to new research treatments before they are widely available, and help others by contributing to medical research.

Who can participate in a clinical trial?
All clinical trials have guidelines about who can participate. Using inclusion/exclusion criteria is an important principle of medical research that helps to produce reliable results. The factors that allow someone to participate in a clinical trial are called “inclusion criteria” and those that disallow someone from participating are called “exclusion criteria”. These criteria are based on such factors as age, gender, the type and stage of a disease, previous treatment history, and other medical conditions. Before joining a clinical trial, a participant must qualify for the study. Some research studies seek participants with illnesses or conditions to be studied in the clinical trial, while others need healthy participants. It is important to note that inclusion and exclusion criteria are not used to reject people personally. Instead, the criteria are used to identify appropriate participants and keep them safe. The criteria help ensure that researchers will be able to answer the questions they plan to study.

What happens during a clinical trial?
The clinical trial process depends on the kind of trial being conducted (See What are the different types of clinical trials?) The clinical trial team includes doctors and nurses as well as social workers and other health care professionals. They check the health of the participant at the beginning of the trial, give specific instructions for participating in the trial, monitor the participant carefully during the trial, and stay in touch after the trial is completed.

Some clinical trials involve more tests and doctor visits than the participant would normally have for an illness or condition. For all types of trials, the participant works with a research team. Clinical trial participation is most successful when the protocol is carefully followed and there is frequent contact with the research staff.

What is informed consent?

Drug Warnings & 'Black Box' Warnings

Drug Warnings & 'Black Box' Warnings

Drug Warnings & 'Black Box' Warnings

Drug Warnings & 'Black Box' Warnings